Embedded Water

Water is used in the production of paper in paper

mills. The amount of water used depends on the 

type of paper being made. Tissue and notebook paper

need less water than newspaper and fine paper. 

     Around 80,000 gallons of water is needed to produce a single

automobile with the weight of 2,150 lbs in steel. Not only is water

used in the production of automobiles, gasoline also contains water. 75,000 

gallons of water is needed to produce one ton of steel.

     Embedded water is the water we use everyday to produce food and non-food products. Also known as hidden water, embedded water makes up 70% of the water we use daily. As humans, we use around 3,500 liters of water a day. This includes all embedded and non-embedded sources of water. To put this into perspective, it takes 1100 drops of water to make a single cup of coffee and roughly 136 drops of water to make a single cup of tea. Out of the 70% of embedded water we use daily, about 65% of it goes towards the production of food we consume. On a global scale, the US and the UK consume the most amounts of water daily. At the rate we are going with our water usage, most of the world will be experiencing a water shortage by the year 2025. That is only 10 years from now! Although there is about 10 years until this happens, the UK and some parts of the US have been experiencing small droughts already. Pulp and paper mills use 17,000 gallons of water per every ton of paper produced. Although there is an increase in awareness in the water usage in pulp and paper mills, these corporations are some of the main sources of water pollution. Concerns with water use include corrosion build-up, chemical usage, water temperature increasing, as well as others. There is also a concern with water usage in car factories. It takes around 80,000 gallons of water to produce a single automobile. That is 75,000 gallons per one ton of steel. Not only is the production of cars concerning for the amount of water being used but also the use of cars after. It takes around 1 to 2.5 gallons of water to fill up and car every time it is at the gas pump. I never thought about how much water I use daily until we discussed our water footprints in class. Aside from brushing my teeth, doing the dishes, washing my hands, doing laundry, cooking, cleaning, and other activities throughout the day, I failed to realize how much water went into other aspects of my life like the books I use for class, the clothes I wear, all of my electronics in some way or another, my car, and many other products I use daily. I know that I cannot completely reduce my use of water in a single day but I have started taking steps to leave a smaller water footprint everyday. When I shower I turn the water off when lathering soap or washing my hair. I wash my clothes with an eco-friendly washer. I recycle all recyclable products I use to keep the amount of freshwater we still have left on earth as clean as possible. I hand wash my dishes instead of using the dishwasher and only use the water when  I need to rinse food or soap off of dishes. Overall, my water use is still very high and I know I need to take even more step to help with future water shortage issues. 

lichen study project

Tree found at the end of the brick alley between the library and Ellis Hall.

                         Tree found at the end of the brick alley between the library and Ellis Hall. About 35 steps from the road and about 6-7 steps from the alley. Lichen was mainly on the side facing the road.

              Grading scale: 2

 Grading scale: 1

 Grading scale: 0

Grading scale: 1

Standard Deviation: -0.32
GPS location: LAT: 39.325
                        LON: -82.099

  Lichen are slow growing plants that form low crust, or leaf, like extensions on rocks, walls, and some trees with symbiotic relations. Symbiosis is an interaction between different organisms living in close physical association where one or both organisms benefit or there is no affect. Both of theses together form lichen symbiosis, which is where the lichen is benefiting from, in this case, the tree by the tree giving the lichen a place to grow and the tree is benefiting by absorbing water that the lichen brings in through its algae. This type of symbiosis is called mutualism. Lichen tends to grow on the side of the tree that does not get sunlight. The relationship between lichen and air quality depends on how clean or polluted air is in the area of the tree being researched. If there is a high visibility of lichen on a tree then the air quality in the surrounding area is clean. Lichen need clean air to be able to grow. If there is a low presence of lichen on a given tree, such as the one I personally researched, then there is polluted air in the surrounding areas. This could also be determined by how close or far the tree is from the road due to the emissions from passing vehicles. Beatrix Potter, the author of Petter Rabbit, contributed to the Lichen Study. Beatrix loved nature and found painting fungi to be fascinating. She came up with a few theories through her work of being an author and illustrator. She believed that there was a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner algae. As further studies were put into place based solely on her beliefs, it was proven to be true with the help of Roy Watling, who discovered her work 15 years ago while sorting through Potter's work and said that no one knew about her work with spores until her discovered it. Candellaria Sp. Yellow is a type of yellow lichen that grow along the leafy grey Physica sp.. These types of lichen are only able to grow under extreme temperature conditions. They are capable of growing in the extreme heat of the desert and the extremely cold temperatures of the antarctic. Along with the extreme temperatures, these lichen are able to photosynthesize under a foot of snow! There are many different types of lichen that are capable of living in various conditions all over the world. The methodology of the lichen tree process and selection was the only one that made the most sense. This process was easy to conduct and simple to interpret for the Graduate Students. The study was also precise enough to detect differences among SO2 and NO2 in a single urban area of Athens on Ohio University's campus. This test was also specific enough to withstand small variations and intricate details by different public areas with different backgrounds. The study was incredibly cost effective and easy to conduct by undergraduate students such as myself. Because of my class and our ability to conduct this study, the data we collected along with the help of the graduate students can be used year after year without having to be redone. The whole lichen study is very well-rounded and easy to navigate (lichen training manual). It was very important to select a tree that represented the standards of the manual very well. The manual suggested that both Ash and Maple trees be tested and the relationship between the lichen on trees should be recorded by using a measuring device that counted the amount of lichen in a given area on the every side of the tree ( north, south, east, and west). Testing the amount of lichen on each side of the tree is important to tell which side is more exposed to sunlight and which side is more exposed to pollution. The presence of Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide would mean that there would be less lichen on the tree because that area's air quality is probably polluted. Selecting the area of the tree was important because if the tree is too close to a roadway, the data may be skewed because pollution will be coming from passing vehicles but may not mean that the overall air quality is bad. The goal is to select a tree in a pollution hotspot of a city or town. In our case, we were assigned one of 4 areas around Athens that were more likely to have polluted air. Once the study is ready to be conducted, the only materials that are required for use are wired quadrants (for counting the amount of lichen), a meter stick to measure exactly one meter off of the ground (this is important because 1 meter gives enough distance from the ground where there may be factors that skew the results of the test), and recording equipment to record all of the data found (this includes a GPS, something to write with, and a calculator). After the data has been collected it will be used to measure the amount of air pollution in the areas we tested and will also be used for a general assumption of air pollution in Athens. 

Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

                               This is an example of a sulfur dioxide source. When volcanoes are in
                        pre-eruption stages, sulfur dioxide is released. Sulfur Dioxide is a colorless gas
                               that is a severe irritant to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes.

                              This is an example of a nitrogen dioxide source. Nitrogen Dioxide comes from
                           coal, oil, gas, and diesel when burned. Emissions can cause severe respiratory issues.



        Sulfur Dioxide is the largest source of emission from fossil fuel power plants and industrial facilities. 99% of sulfuric acid comes from human sources. Sulfur Dioxide also comes from acid rain as a secondary source. When inhaled, sulfur dioxide causes adverse respiratory effects such as bronchoconstriction and in increase in asthma symptoms especially in younger children and in the elderly. There are only a few places where the levels of sulfur dioxide are high enough to harm the lichen population, which are in areas with high levels of burning fossil fuels. Sulfur dioxide has the ability to dissovle cellular cytoplasm because of how easily it is absorbed by lichens. Sulfur Dioxide makes lichens very sensitive to acidity and when affected by sulfur dioxide, the photosynthesis process is altered. Sulfur dioxide also comes from erupting volcanoes and can cause severe irritation to skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Sulfur Dioxide has a ppm of 2 for the time weighed average. Efforts to manage the emissions of sulfur dioxide include implementing the national fuel quality standards, supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards, and promoting the  use of alternative fuels. Nitrogen Dioxide is a gas that comes from natural sources such as plants, soil, and water. Inhaling nitrogen dioxide can cause inflammation of the airways, coughing and wheezing, lung infections, increased and more frequent asthma attacks, greater likelihood of hospital admission or emergency department, increased likelihood of respiratory infection such as influenza. Nitrogen dioxide can also increase the amount of phlegm in adults and allergic reactions to inhaled pollens. As Paracelsus says, "Everything is poisonous- only the dose differentiates a poison from a remedy". The amount of NO2 inhaled will determine the health effects it has on a person. In this case, nitrogen dioxide has a ppm of 3 for the time weighted average. Nitrogen dioxide contributes to the creation and modification of particulate matter and acid rain. Individual exposure to nitrogen dioxide mainly depends on outdoor concentration due to busy roads and other areas with high levels of nitrogen dioxide. Efforts to manage  the emissions of nitrogen dioxide include implementing national fuel standards, supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards, developing a national environment protection measure for diesel to improve the in-service performance of diesel vehicles, developing and promoting alternative fuels, and developing pollution forecasting systems for major cities. Nitrogen dioxide, as well as sulfur dioxide, creates a sensitivity of lichens when they are exposed to the gas. Nitrogen dioxide gas can also contribute in the breakdown of lichen cells. although effects of nitrogen dioxide on lichen has still not been proven 100%, nitrogen oxide alone still causes adverse effects on lichen species.

Air pollution

Air pollution in China is still a serious issue. Breathing in air 

in Beijing for one day is the equivalent of smoking 40 cigarettes. 

Air pollution kills an estimated 4,000 people a day in China.

http://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/18/china-air-pollution-far-worse-than-thought-study.html

In my hometown of Chillicothe, OH the MEAD spreads pollution

daily. The MEAD emits around 34 tons of volatile organic compound 

and 33,000 lbs. of hazardous waste every year. The EPA is working 

on a project to reduce workers exposure to solvents and solvent vapors as

well as focusing on the health of Chillicothe residents.

http://www.epa.ohio.gov/portals/41/p2/p2regint/MeadCorp.pdf

EPA and Air Pollution

After visiting the Ohio EPA webpage and browsing through the Ohio standards, I found that Ohio has good to moderate air quality overall. I did not know that there were "safe" levels of lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, PM10, PM2.5, ozone, and sulfur dioxide but Ohio has full attainment on all of them. I was also unaware of the 5 year testing period for these toxins. There were only 5 violations of the Ohio EPA code in 2014. In Chillicothe, the paper mill (MEAD) emits pollutants and hazardous wastes every day. In the summer after it rains, the smell of sulfur dioxide is very present and covers the entire city. According to Ohio EPA, the Chillicothe MEAD emits over 34 tons of volatile organic compounds and 33,000 lbs. of hazardous waste every year. Many citizens of Chillicothe have breathing problems, mostly the elderly. Those that live near the MEAD either work for the company or are from low income families. There are homes and buisnesses within 100 feet of the MEAD. 2015 studies from The Ohio State University have shown that the emissions from the MEAD are linked to Mesothelioma cancer. Unfortunately, the research shows that zones to watch out for exposure include the entire Chillicothe School System. Ohio's sulfur dioxide levels have not been tested since January of 2013 and will not be tested again until 2018 but it one of the major air quality issues in Chillicothe. 

According to National Geographic, carbon dioxide is the number one pollutant around the world, which is to blame for global warming. Over the past 150 years, the Earth has been the warmest it has ever been due to the pumping of carbon dioxide into the air. The next largest pollutants are methane and chlorofluorocarbons, which cause holes in the ozone layer and come from areosols and refrigerants. Although countries that are industrialized like the United States are trying to lower the amounts of sulfur dioxide emitted into the air, studies have shown that lower sulfur dioxide levels may create worse global warming issues because without it, there is no blockage from direct sunlight (http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution-overview/). The only way humans can help stop global warming and reduce the amount of air pollution around the world would be to drive less and bike and walk more, reduce reuse and recycle, and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide individually or reducing one's carbon footprint. One way the government and the world as a whole has helped reduce greenhouse gasses is the Kyoto Protocol which states that countries will cut back on carbon dioxide emissions because air pollution is not only effecting the country you live in, it is spreading into developing countries and causing people to fall ill because of our pollution. Along with the Kyoto Protocol, many companies and worksites are giving incentives to those who make "greener" choices. Most people do not realize that the choices we make today will stay on Earth as their personal footprint. A lot of people turn away from green actions and behaviors because of the cost. There are many ways to help reduce air pollution but it starts with the individual.

Websites used:

http://www.epa.ohio.gov/portals/41/p2/p2regint/MeadCorp.pdf

http://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/18/china-air-pollution-far-worse-than-thought-study.html

http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/general/naaqs.aspx

http://epa.ohio.gov/Portals/27/ams/AR2004_web.pdf

http://www.mesothelioma.com/asbestos-exposure/states/ohio/chillicothe/

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution-overview/

http://38.106.5.41/Modules/ShowDocument.aspx?documentID=2640