Privatized Water

Nestle is planning to privatize their water. Peter Brabeck 

believes that water is a human right but there isn't enough fresh water 

on earth to go around. He believes that water should be available to everyone

but there is too much of a need to make it free.

1 in 10 people in the world do not have access to clean water. 1 in 3 people 

in the world do not have access to a toilet. This means that a population

twice the size of the Uniter States has no access to safe water. 

Privatized water is used as a shorthand for private sector participants in the provision of water services and sanitation. Unfortunately, not everyone agrees that water should be a human right and companies with a lot money can make that decision for us whether we agree or not. There are many reasons that privatized water is a bad idea. One reason is that is that privatization leads to an increase in product rates. The more water becomes privatized, the more profit companies will be able to make off of it and it will cost consumers more to purchase water. We are already seeing these trends in areas where water has been privatized. Privatized water has been most devastating in developing countries and in poorer areas of the United States. Also, our government promises that companies will make a certain profit off of the water they sell. This has lead to a huge unfair advantage in the world. Another issue with privatized water is that is takes away the public right to water. The largest private water company in the United States is located in Huber Heights, OH. Large companies like this one are able to do what they want with the water they own. In this case, the Huber Heights water company began to allow outside communities use their water without enforcing taxes. There were many complaints about this but residents were ignored. Once water has been privatized it is hard to reverse. Withdrawing a privatized water contract is almost impossible because it is a long, expensive process and a company can use NAFTA to provide legal recourse if the contract is challenged. Privatized water can leave poorer communities without access to clean water. Private water can become very costly and can double or triple a family's water bill. Most of the time this results in the family having to shut off their water sources altogether and their access to clean water is gone. This leads to many secondary issues such as dehydration and water borne illnesses because their only other option of water is contaminated. Although it is hard for some people to see, we are in a worldwide water crisis that it only getting worse. There are already areas of the United States that are in severe droughts and there is no light at the end of the tunnel for most people. As we see the water crisis worsening, companies are searching harder than every to find water to call theirs around the globe. Although a water crisis is devastating to many, investors and large water companies see it as an opportunity. Their plan is to privatize as much clean water as possible and sell it at increased rates like I mentioned earlier. Water should always be a human right since we share this earth but that is not reality. People are dying everyday because of having no clean water but large corporations only see dollar signs and are blind to what is actually happening in the world around them. 

Dead Zones

This is an example of a dead zone. This specific dead zone 

is due to the build up of sediment. This is called

a creeping dead zone. 

This came from an article claiming that humans are the cause

of dead zones globally. The article states that although dead zones

occur naturally humans play a large role. Our carelessness and 

practices may be causing dead zones. 

A dead zone, or hypoxic zone, in the ocean is a an area of low oxygen. The oxygen is so low that most organisms suffocate and die in these areas or leave. Dead zones are caused by excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other natural factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in bottom and near-bottom water. Although most animals and plants cannot live in dead zones, many species of bacteria thrive in these low oxygen areas. Dead zones occur all over the world and are completely natural but over the past 50 years there has been an increase in dead zones due to the amount of pollutants being tossed into the oceans. As  result, dead zones have ale increased in size and have thrown off the balance coastal ecosystems. The largest dead zone in the world currently is the Baltic Sea. Other dead zones include Chesapeake Bay in Oregon, Lake Erie, and the Gulf of Mexico. There have been 405 dead zones identified worldwide. There have also been studies conducted on the relation between climate change and dead zones. With the worlds general climate rising every year, the oceans will become warmer as well. Warmer water holds less oxygen which means that dead zones will begin to increase and become larger in size, killing off organisms. in the United States alone there are around 200 dead zones and only about 34 of them are from natural causes, The rest are from human pollution including sewage, irrigation runoff, chemicals, and more. In Africa and South America, sewage is the biggest issue with water pollution but researchers say that this could be a good thing because of the improvements on water sanitation and waste management solutions. Another cause of dead zones from pollution is airborne nitrogen from vehicles and power plants when they burn off fossil fuels. Nitrification is mainly an issue along the Chesapeake Bay area and in Long Island sound because of coal-burning power plants that heavily give off large amounts of nitrogen. We live near most of the dead zones in the United States. The eastern and southeastern regions of the United States contain the most dead zones. This map illustrates all of the areas of dead zones in the United State. The darker areas are the dead zones found across the country. Two reasons for more dead zones being in the eastern areas rather than the western areas are the population density and the climate of the region. There are more people, and animals, residing in the eastern parts of the country and the climate tends to be higher and more humid. 

Aquaculture

This is an example of aquaculture, or aqua farming. This is the 

farming of aquatic life including fish, plants, sea vegetables, 

and more. Types of aquaculture include marine and freshwater. 

This is another example of freshwater aquaculture versus 

marine aquaculture. These include different types of fish and plants 

that are raised depending on what water they live in. Aquacultures insure that

production is plentiful. 

Aquaculture, also known as aqua farming, refers to the controlled breeding of fish, shellfish, and vegetation. This is done for both the commercial production and restoration of aquatic life in areas that need it most. This includes aquaculture in both marine and freshwater areas. Aquaculture for restoration use is important because earth is loosing more and more species of plants and animals everyday. Restoration ensures that these plants and animals are bread and released back into their natural habitat. In the United States, aquaculture is overseen by the United States Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Food and Drug Administration. Aquaculture is usually combined with other practices such as wetland protection, water quality, wastewater treatment, water supply, fish health, and on-native species programs. Combining aquaculture with these other programs help with the increase in food production to keep up with supply and demand. Aquaculture is not harmful to the environment in any way. Although the United States has enough supply to distribute, 88% of the seafood we consume as a nation comes from an imported source. The countries that the United States imports seafood from typically do not have any environmental standards. The quality the water in United States aqua farms either stays the same or is better than when it is first used and is often reused for irrigation or treated and reused for more aqua farms. There are qualifications for the fish feed used in aquaculture as well. Fish feed must meet the Food and Drug Administration standards as well as those of the American Association of Feed Control Officials. Buying and consuming United States raised fish and aqua life is important because the United States has one of the highest standard for environmental and product safety compared to the rest of the world. This is not to say that we should not trust fish and other aquatic life that is imported but the Unites States can ensure the safety and regulations of the product. As for a global view of aquaculture, it is rapidly expanding and can be found almost everywhere except Sub-Saharan Africa. Because of global aquaculture, fish are more plentiful than ever and fisherman are having more success because of the abundance. In order to maintain a current global level per capita consumption, aquaculture needs to reach 80 million tons by 2050. With the hopes of aquaculture eventually reaching every nation in the near future, there is a large chance that we could begin to see more diverse populations of aquatic life and new species appearing. Market, trade, and consumption largely influence the rate at which aquaculture grows and succeeds. Other than the United States, Asia has the highest rate of aquaculture overall. 

Is water a human right?

This is an example of a child that does not have simple access 

to water. Most areas in the world are without access to water. 

This creates many issues other than dehydration. 

Other than dehydration, people who drink contaminated water

face many life threatening health issues. Contaminated water

may contain chemicals or other substances such and urine, feces,

parasites, etc. that can kill anyone that ingested them. Some countries do not

have the right to water because of larger, more powerful countries. 

   Although most people in developing countries have easy access to water and can drink it straight from the tap, we do not think about the fact that billions of other people in the world do not have the same access. As of 2011, the United Nations General Assembly stated that drinkable water should be a human right. This includes the fact that not only should water be plentiful and easy to access, but it should be clean and able to drink without the risk of illness. This is clearly much easier said than done. There is no specific plan in place to make sure that water is a human right because it would be too large scale. Deciding if water is a human right or not is solely based on opinion at the moment. The United Nations General Assembly also stated that water as a human right is more designed to give other rights as water and is used more as an umbrella statement for many smaller issues. As a country that has accessible access to water, we really cannot declare this to be true all over the world. As of 2015, 884 million people still do not have access to clean drinking water and the numbers are steadily rising. Along with no access to clean drinking water, 2.6 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation. Unfortunately, between 50 and 100 liters of water per person are needed everyday for basic needs including drinking water and sanitation needs. On the brighter side, the UN stated that: "Between 1998 and 2008, 1,052,000 urban dwellers gained access to improved drinking water and 813,000,000 to improved sanitation. However, the urban population in that period grew by 1,089,000 people and thus undermined the progress". The United Nations General Assembly also stated that 27% of urban dweller in the developing world do not have access to piped water at home.

In my opinion, I believe that water should be a human right but we must be aware that this right must not be taken for granted and must be shared with the rest of Earth. Water is also the right to animals and plants as well and it is our job as humans to maintain the water quality everywhere and make it safe for an organism to use. The more humans contaminate the remaining water on earth, more species of plants and animals will go extinct until we have nothing left. So far, we are doing a poor job of making sure water is accessible and sanitary for all humans and an even worse job making sure that it is sanitary enough for plant and animal use. Water is not a resource that we can automatically get more and more of. I believe that it a human right but human should also be limited on how much they use and how much waste they are putting into it. 

stream erosion

This is an example of stream erosion. This is located in 

Linn County, Oregon. This stream supports 3 communities

and the erosion is constant. 

This is a picture of the different loads in a stream. These 

loads include solution. suspended, and bed. This is the 

way debris moves through streams.

  Stream erosion happens when loose sediments are moved along the bottom of a river channel creating small bed forms such as ripples and sand dunes. There are 3 types of loads in stream erosion including solution, suspension, and bed. Solution load, or dissolved, is when dissolved rock is carried in the flow. This is higher where the flow is derived from groundwater pathways. This allows water to stay in contact with rock for long periods of time. It is also higher where rock is prone to chemical weathering. The next load is Suspension. Suspension load happens with finer sediment such as clay and silt and as it flows, it does not come into contact with the bed. The clay and silt is suspended by the turbulent flow of the water. The suspended load comes from materials eroded from the surface bordering the channel and deposited in the stream plus the erosion from the channel. The third load is the bed load. The bed load is moved through the bed of the channel. The bed is transported by traction and saltation. Traction is the scooting and rolling of materials through the bed of a stream. Saltation is the movement of materials through a bounce like motion. Saltation occurs when materials  are suspended in a stream for a short distance and then fall to the bed, dislodging particles. This is a reoccurring pattern. 

   Mature streams form after excessive erosion has occurred over time. It is characterized by the sloping sides. The stream gets wider and becomes more U shaped. The stream will also become less steep which results in slower and steadier moving water. This characteristic can lead to the formation of large floodplains where water can escape if the stream somehow becomes flooded. On the other hand, a youth stream occurs when a stream is in it early stages on an uplifted landmass. These streams are very steep in formation and have an energetic flow of water. Unlike the U shape of a mature stream, youth streams are V shaped and have not formed a floodplain yet. Youth streams are also characterized by the interruption of boulders, rapids, and waterfalls on the flow of the stream. Floodplains are areas of land that are prone to flooding the surround mature streams. This is the wide, level bottom of a valley that contains a stream. These are very important areas to have because they are capable of holding water from a flooded stream. Floodplains vary on the size and depth of the valley that the stream is located in. When enough land is eroded and a mature stream is formed, this is now called a stream valley which is a depression of earth with water flowing at the lowest point. Stream valley's are characterized by the presence of floodplains.  

Wetlands

This is a picture of a wetland. Wetlands are the most threatened

part of nature at the moment. Many have been damaged 

or removed by humans for various reasons. 

What are Wetlands? Wetlands include and body of land with a marsh or swamp, or in other words saturated. It is an area where water either covers the soil or where water is present in the soil throughout the year. This is largely determined by what type of life there is in the environment including plants, animals, and insects. Wetlands also depend on other factors such as topography, climate, water chemistry, vegetation, and human disturbances. Wetlands are most common in the northern and midwestern parts of the United States as well as Alaska. Some wetlands even dry up for parts of the year and becomes habitats for other animals and vegetation during the off-season. 

What is the importance of wetlands? Wetlands are important to our environment because they provide earth and it inhabitants with economic, social, and cultural benefits that many of us fail to realize. Economically, wetlands provide opportunities for fishing, timber, and give tourists activities to try. Wetlands help reduce the impact of storm damage by giving water a place to go if flooding occurs. They also maintain water quality for rivers, recharge groundwater, store carbon, and help stabilize climate control and control pests. Wetlands have a lot to offer us and we are not doing our part to sustain them. Without wetlands we will loose vegetation, animals, and many other issues will arise. They help with irrigation on farms and provide water for livestock and domestic use. Wetlands filter out pollutants and absorb nutrients that would otherwise result in poor quality downstream. 

What is RAMSAR? RAMSAR convention, also called the convention of wetlands, is a treaty that provides national action and international cooperation for the conservation and the wise use of wetlands and their resources. There are currently 2,216 RAMSAR sites. 

What is RAMSAR in Ohio? In the state of Ohio, the RAMSAR site located in Columbus is called the Wilma H. Schiermeier Olentangy River Wetland Research Park (ORWRP). Wetlands include freshwater, tree dominated wetlands, permanent rivers streams and creeks, seasonal and intermittent wetlands, and permanent freshwater marshes. It has a unique combination of biologically diverse habitats, it provides high quality education of students at The Ohio State University, and significant wetland eco-tourism and outreach for an urban community where few wetlands remain. Since its development it has supported over 160 bird species, diverse fish and invertebrate species, and a variety of mammals, amphibians and reptiles as well as over 1.6 million people in its surrounding urban region. The ORWRP is one of only two research facilities of its kind in the United States.

What country did not sign on to RAMSAR? Although the list of countries that have signed on to RAMSAR is very large, I did find out that Uruguay just signed on to the treaty as of this year. There is no direct information on what country has not yet signed on to the treaty if there are any. It looks like RAMSAR has already had an impact on its participating countries. Although this treaty is widespread, many countries only has one specific facility or area for wetland protection. 

Urbanization

This is what urbanization looks like in some parts of Africa today.

Although this is not America, the United States is rapidly growing and

could resemble this in the near future. This is a prime example of 

why we need to limit our resources before we run out.

   Urbanization refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas. This results in the physical growth of urban areas vertically and horizontally versus rural areas. Urbanization began in the time of industrial revolution when people flocked to large cities in search for jobs and a better life due to the decrease in need for agriculture. This has been the case in America for decades as well as other areas of the world. Developing countries are beginning to have increases in urbanization, which is causing mass homelessness and low resources. People are turning to the worst case scenario in order to stay alive including food, water, and everyday needs. Those who have no resources at all readily available to them are turning to contaminated water to wash dishes, clothes, and even themselves. Children are becoming ill because they are so thirsty that they are drinking the same water that is being bathed in and excreted in by humans and animals. Many of us do not realize this because we have available running water and it is all clean but most countries have no running water and most of the water is not clean. In some places in the world, families wait in lines for hours just to fill up jugs of water to carry all the way home. This water will last for close to a week depending on how many people live in the house and how frequently the water is used. Urbanization is causing more trash to build up in small water sources and is being carried to larger lakes and oceans. The increase I'm litter is causing chemical and other dangerous substances to leak into water sources. Believe it or not, urbanization is also causing erosion and sedimentation to occur in heavily populated areas. Although population growth is not in anyones control, we can all do our part in keeping these areas clean and healthy to live in. A few things we can do to help is keeping trash, animal waste, and debris out of draining systems. We can also dispose of waste including antifreeze, paints, oils, etc. properly. Cleaning up oil spills, break fluids, antifreeze, and grease can eliminate contamination in water sources. Controlling soil erosion and encouraging local government officials to develop construction erosion/ sediment control ordinances in your community. Have your septic system pumped and inspected every 3-5 years to make sure it is working properly. Other than trash and chemicals, pathogens can also enter freshwater through feces and food that contaminate water sources. This is the reason for so many people falling ill in developing countries. Pathogens cannot be  seen by the human eye and do not make water look dirty. Most people will drink water if it looks clean regardless of where it came from. These pathogens cause hundreds off illnesses and deaths yearly worldwide. Many of us know that water is an issues in other countries and can become and issue in the states very soon for humans, but we fail to realize that our habits of not taking care of the environment is killing wildlife, especially aquatic life. There is a food chain on earth and if we damage the very bottom of it will we will be next. 

Embedded Water

Water is used in the production of paper in paper

mills. The amount of water used depends on the 

type of paper being made. Tissue and notebook paper

need less water than newspaper and fine paper. 

     Around 80,000 gallons of water is needed to produce a single

automobile with the weight of 2,150 lbs in steel. Not only is water

used in the production of automobiles, gasoline also contains water. 75,000 

gallons of water is needed to produce one ton of steel.

     Embedded water is the water we use everyday to produce food and non-food products. Also known as hidden water, embedded water makes up 70% of the water we use daily. As humans, we use around 3,500 liters of water a day. This includes all embedded and non-embedded sources of water. To put this into perspective, it takes 1100 drops of water to make a single cup of coffee and roughly 136 drops of water to make a single cup of tea. Out of the 70% of embedded water we use daily, about 65% of it goes towards the production of food we consume. On a global scale, the US and the UK consume the most amounts of water daily. At the rate we are going with our water usage, most of the world will be experiencing a water shortage by the year 2025. That is only 10 years from now! Although there is about 10 years until this happens, the UK and some parts of the US have been experiencing small droughts already. Pulp and paper mills use 17,000 gallons of water per every ton of paper produced. Although there is an increase in awareness in the water usage in pulp and paper mills, these corporations are some of the main sources of water pollution. Concerns with water use include corrosion build-up, chemical usage, water temperature increasing, as well as others. There is also a concern with water usage in car factories. It takes around 80,000 gallons of water to produce a single automobile. That is 75,000 gallons per one ton of steel. Not only is the production of cars concerning for the amount of water being used but also the use of cars after. It takes around 1 to 2.5 gallons of water to fill up and car every time it is at the gas pump. I never thought about how much water I use daily until we discussed our water footprints in class. Aside from brushing my teeth, doing the dishes, washing my hands, doing laundry, cooking, cleaning, and other activities throughout the day, I failed to realize how much water went into other aspects of my life like the books I use for class, the clothes I wear, all of my electronics in some way or another, my car, and many other products I use daily. I know that I cannot completely reduce my use of water in a single day but I have started taking steps to leave a smaller water footprint everyday. When I shower I turn the water off when lathering soap or washing my hair. I wash my clothes with an eco-friendly washer. I recycle all recyclable products I use to keep the amount of freshwater we still have left on earth as clean as possible. I hand wash my dishes instead of using the dishwasher and only use the water when  I need to rinse food or soap off of dishes. Overall, my water use is still very high and I know I need to take even more step to help with future water shortage issues. 

lichen study project

Tree found at the end of the brick alley between the library and Ellis Hall.

                         Tree found at the end of the brick alley between the library and Ellis Hall. About 35 steps from the road and about 6-7 steps from the alley. Lichen was mainly on the side facing the road.

              Grading scale: 2

 Grading scale: 1

 Grading scale: 0

Grading scale: 1

Standard Deviation: -0.32
GPS location: LAT: 39.325
                        LON: -82.099

  Lichen are slow growing plants that form low crust, or leaf, like extensions on rocks, walls, and some trees with symbiotic relations. Symbiosis is an interaction between different organisms living in close physical association where one or both organisms benefit or there is no affect. Both of theses together form lichen symbiosis, which is where the lichen is benefiting from, in this case, the tree by the tree giving the lichen a place to grow and the tree is benefiting by absorbing water that the lichen brings in through its algae. This type of symbiosis is called mutualism. Lichen tends to grow on the side of the tree that does not get sunlight. The relationship between lichen and air quality depends on how clean or polluted air is in the area of the tree being researched. If there is a high visibility of lichen on a tree then the air quality in the surrounding area is clean. Lichen need clean air to be able to grow. If there is a low presence of lichen on a given tree, such as the one I personally researched, then there is polluted air in the surrounding areas. This could also be determined by how close or far the tree is from the road due to the emissions from passing vehicles. Beatrix Potter, the author of Petter Rabbit, contributed to the Lichen Study. Beatrix loved nature and found painting fungi to be fascinating. She came up with a few theories through her work of being an author and illustrator. She believed that there was a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and its photosynthetic partner algae. As further studies were put into place based solely on her beliefs, it was proven to be true with the help of Roy Watling, who discovered her work 15 years ago while sorting through Potter's work and said that no one knew about her work with spores until her discovered it. Candellaria Sp. Yellow is a type of yellow lichen that grow along the leafy grey Physica sp.. These types of lichen are only able to grow under extreme temperature conditions. They are capable of growing in the extreme heat of the desert and the extremely cold temperatures of the antarctic. Along with the extreme temperatures, these lichen are able to photosynthesize under a foot of snow! There are many different types of lichen that are capable of living in various conditions all over the world. The methodology of the lichen tree process and selection was the only one that made the most sense. This process was easy to conduct and simple to interpret for the Graduate Students. The study was also precise enough to detect differences among SO2 and NO2 in a single urban area of Athens on Ohio University's campus. This test was also specific enough to withstand small variations and intricate details by different public areas with different backgrounds. The study was incredibly cost effective and easy to conduct by undergraduate students such as myself. Because of my class and our ability to conduct this study, the data we collected along with the help of the graduate students can be used year after year without having to be redone. The whole lichen study is very well-rounded and easy to navigate (lichen training manual). It was very important to select a tree that represented the standards of the manual very well. The manual suggested that both Ash and Maple trees be tested and the relationship between the lichen on trees should be recorded by using a measuring device that counted the amount of lichen in a given area on the every side of the tree ( north, south, east, and west). Testing the amount of lichen on each side of the tree is important to tell which side is more exposed to sunlight and which side is more exposed to pollution. The presence of Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide would mean that there would be less lichen on the tree because that area's air quality is probably polluted. Selecting the area of the tree was important because if the tree is too close to a roadway, the data may be skewed because pollution will be coming from passing vehicles but may not mean that the overall air quality is bad. The goal is to select a tree in a pollution hotspot of a city or town. In our case, we were assigned one of 4 areas around Athens that were more likely to have polluted air. Once the study is ready to be conducted, the only materials that are required for use are wired quadrants (for counting the amount of lichen), a meter stick to measure exactly one meter off of the ground (this is important because 1 meter gives enough distance from the ground where there may be factors that skew the results of the test), and recording equipment to record all of the data found (this includes a GPS, something to write with, and a calculator). After the data has been collected it will be used to measure the amount of air pollution in the areas we tested and will also be used for a general assumption of air pollution in Athens. 

Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Dioxide

                               This is an example of a sulfur dioxide source. When volcanoes are in
                        pre-eruption stages, sulfur dioxide is released. Sulfur Dioxide is a colorless gas
                               that is a severe irritant to the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes.

                              This is an example of a nitrogen dioxide source. Nitrogen Dioxide comes from
                           coal, oil, gas, and diesel when burned. Emissions can cause severe respiratory issues.



        Sulfur Dioxide is the largest source of emission from fossil fuel power plants and industrial facilities. 99% of sulfuric acid comes from human sources. Sulfur Dioxide also comes from acid rain as a secondary source. When inhaled, sulfur dioxide causes adverse respiratory effects such as bronchoconstriction and in increase in asthma symptoms especially in younger children and in the elderly. There are only a few places where the levels of sulfur dioxide are high enough to harm the lichen population, which are in areas with high levels of burning fossil fuels. Sulfur dioxide has the ability to dissovle cellular cytoplasm because of how easily it is absorbed by lichens. Sulfur Dioxide makes lichens very sensitive to acidity and when affected by sulfur dioxide, the photosynthesis process is altered. Sulfur dioxide also comes from erupting volcanoes and can cause severe irritation to skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Sulfur Dioxide has a ppm of 2 for the time weighed average. Efforts to manage the emissions of sulfur dioxide include implementing the national fuel quality standards, supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards, and promoting the  use of alternative fuels. Nitrogen Dioxide is a gas that comes from natural sources such as plants, soil, and water. Inhaling nitrogen dioxide can cause inflammation of the airways, coughing and wheezing, lung infections, increased and more frequent asthma attacks, greater likelihood of hospital admission or emergency department, increased likelihood of respiratory infection such as influenza. Nitrogen dioxide can also increase the amount of phlegm in adults and allergic reactions to inhaled pollens. As Paracelsus says, "Everything is poisonous- only the dose differentiates a poison from a remedy". The amount of NO2 inhaled will determine the health effects it has on a person. In this case, nitrogen dioxide has a ppm of 3 for the time weighted average. Nitrogen dioxide contributes to the creation and modification of particulate matter and acid rain. Individual exposure to nitrogen dioxide mainly depends on outdoor concentration due to busy roads and other areas with high levels of nitrogen dioxide. Efforts to manage  the emissions of nitrogen dioxide include implementing national fuel standards, supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards, developing a national environment protection measure for diesel to improve the in-service performance of diesel vehicles, developing and promoting alternative fuels, and developing pollution forecasting systems for major cities. Nitrogen dioxide, as well as sulfur dioxide, creates a sensitivity of lichens when they are exposed to the gas. Nitrogen dioxide gas can also contribute in the breakdown of lichen cells. although effects of nitrogen dioxide on lichen has still not been proven 100%, nitrogen oxide alone still causes adverse effects on lichen species.

Air pollution

Air pollution in China is still a serious issue. Breathing in air 

in Beijing for one day is the equivalent of smoking 40 cigarettes. 

Air pollution kills an estimated 4,000 people a day in China.

http://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/18/china-air-pollution-far-worse-than-thought-study.html

In my hometown of Chillicothe, OH the MEAD spreads pollution

daily. The MEAD emits around 34 tons of volatile organic compound 

and 33,000 lbs. of hazardous waste every year. The EPA is working 

on a project to reduce workers exposure to solvents and solvent vapors as

well as focusing on the health of Chillicothe residents.

http://www.epa.ohio.gov/portals/41/p2/p2regint/MeadCorp.pdf

EPA and Air Pollution

After visiting the Ohio EPA webpage and browsing through the Ohio standards, I found that Ohio has good to moderate air quality overall. I did not know that there were "safe" levels of lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, PM10, PM2.5, ozone, and sulfur dioxide but Ohio has full attainment on all of them. I was also unaware of the 5 year testing period for these toxins. There were only 5 violations of the Ohio EPA code in 2014. In Chillicothe, the paper mill (MEAD) emits pollutants and hazardous wastes every day. In the summer after it rains, the smell of sulfur dioxide is very present and covers the entire city. According to Ohio EPA, the Chillicothe MEAD emits over 34 tons of volatile organic compounds and 33,000 lbs. of hazardous waste every year. Many citizens of Chillicothe have breathing problems, mostly the elderly. Those that live near the MEAD either work for the company or are from low income families. There are homes and buisnesses within 100 feet of the MEAD. 2015 studies from The Ohio State University have shown that the emissions from the MEAD are linked to Mesothelioma cancer. Unfortunately, the research shows that zones to watch out for exposure include the entire Chillicothe School System. Ohio's sulfur dioxide levels have not been tested since January of 2013 and will not be tested again until 2018 but it one of the major air quality issues in Chillicothe. 

According to National Geographic, carbon dioxide is the number one pollutant around the world, which is to blame for global warming. Over the past 150 years, the Earth has been the warmest it has ever been due to the pumping of carbon dioxide into the air. The next largest pollutants are methane and chlorofluorocarbons, which cause holes in the ozone layer and come from areosols and refrigerants. Although countries that are industrialized like the United States are trying to lower the amounts of sulfur dioxide emitted into the air, studies have shown that lower sulfur dioxide levels may create worse global warming issues because without it, there is no blockage from direct sunlight (http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution-overview/). The only way humans can help stop global warming and reduce the amount of air pollution around the world would be to drive less and bike and walk more, reduce reuse and recycle, and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide individually or reducing one's carbon footprint. One way the government and the world as a whole has helped reduce greenhouse gasses is the Kyoto Protocol which states that countries will cut back on carbon dioxide emissions because air pollution is not only effecting the country you live in, it is spreading into developing countries and causing people to fall ill because of our pollution. Along with the Kyoto Protocol, many companies and worksites are giving incentives to those who make "greener" choices. Most people do not realize that the choices we make today will stay on Earth as their personal footprint. A lot of people turn away from green actions and behaviors because of the cost. There are many ways to help reduce air pollution but it starts with the individual.

Websites used:

http://www.epa.ohio.gov/portals/41/p2/p2regint/MeadCorp.pdf

http://www.cnbc.com/2015/08/18/china-air-pollution-far-worse-than-thought-study.html

http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dapc/general/naaqs.aspx

http://epa.ohio.gov/Portals/27/ams/AR2004_web.pdf

http://www.mesothelioma.com/asbestos-exposure/states/ohio/chillicothe/

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/pollution-overview/

http://38.106.5.41/Modules/ShowDocument.aspx?documentID=2640